Over the centuries, the neighboring Kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary and Poland were regarded as multicultural states. Although today this diversity is much less visible, it marked their history and shaped their culture. It is particularly evident in the context of religious beliefs. In a broader sense, taking into consideration attitudes towards representatives of different faiths, they should be considered as the history of religious tolerance and intolerance in Central Europe.
Christianity, especially Catholicism, played the greatest role in shaping attitudes toward other religions as well as other Christian denominations. With regard to this, it is necessary to mention both the official polemics of the Church and the direct impact on people’s behaviour. The issues became evident in forms of pagan backlash at first (in 10th-11th centuries), and later on – via great heresies, from which one – Hussitism – originated in Bohemia and influenced its neighboring nations. This is why religious affairs in Central Europe were always slightly different from those in other countries.
This is especially true in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation context. Persecution of infidels was not uncommon, but not as frequent as in other countries. There were also attempts to legislate the situation of dissidents, such as Edict of Torda for Eastern Hungary and Transylvania (1568), Warsaw Confederation for Poland-Lithuania (1573) or Letter of Majesty for Bohemia (1609). Even though the terms of the document applied only to the representatives of the nobility, those acts were among the first in Europe to grant religious freedom.
The situation of representatives of other faiths was also regulated by legal acts. Regarding this, the Jews should be mentioned. Apart from the reasons of the considering state of affairs, the Jews had their own parliament in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as cities they could be considered safe havens in Hungary and Bohemia. In later years and centuries, attempts to regulate religious freedom were also made. Consequently, according to the modern constitutions and the regulation currently in force, freedom of conscience and religion are laws granted to everyone.
Nevertheless, the law does not always determine the social situation. Years of coexistence of the representatives of different religions and Christian denominations contributed to the creation of various myths and stereotypes that influenced relations between the inhabitants of the countries in question. These mentioned myths and stereotypes also shaped the perception of Czechia, Hungary and Poland in general. Some of them still have a significant impact on the shaping of national self-consciousness. It proves that issues related to the considered topic deserve more attention.
Literature:
Zeman J. K., The Rise of Religious Liberty in the Czech Reformation, “Central European History” 6 (1973), 128-147.
A Companion to the Reformation in Central Europe, eds. H. Louthan. G. Murdock, Leiden 2015.
A Sourcebook of Early Modern European History. Life, Death, and Everything in Between, ed. Ute Lotz-Heumann, London 2019.
Berend N., At the Gate of Christendom. Jews, Muslims and ‘Pagans’ in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000-c. 1300, Cambridge 2001.
David Zdeněk V., Realism, Tolerance, and Liberalism in the Czech National Awakening. Legacies of the Bohemian Reformation, Washington 2010.
Dreisziger N. F., Church and Society in Hungary and in the Hungarian Diaspora,
Toronto 2016.
Friars, Nobles and Burghers – Sermons Images and Prints. Studies of Culture and Society in Early-Modern Europe, ed. J. Miller, L. Kontler, Budapest 2010.
Golebiowska E., The many faces of tolerance. Attitudes towards diversity in Poland, New York 2014.
Hertz A., The Jews in Polish culture, Evanston 1988.
Jews and Protestants. From the Reformation to the Present, eds. I. Aue-Ben-David, A. Elyada, M. Sluhovsky, C. Wiese, Berlin/Boston 2020.
Kaplan B. J., Divided by Faith. Religious Conflicts and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge 2007.
Kriegseinen W., Between State and Church. Confessional relations from Reformation to Enlightenment: Poland – Lithuania – Germany – Netherlands, Frankfurt am Main 2016.
Maciszewski J., Szlachta polska i jej państwo, Warszawa 1986.
Reformed Theology. Identity and Ecumenicity, eds. W. M. Alston Jr., M. Welker, Cambridge 2003.
Religion, Rights and Secular Society. European Perspectives, eds. P. Cumper, T. Levis, Cheltenham/Northampton 2012.
Rosman M., The Lords’s Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 18th Century, Cambridge 1990.
Smith S. A., Freedom of Religion. Foundational Documents and Historical Arguments, Oxbridge 2018.
Sober, Strict, and Scriptural: Collective Memories of John Calvin, 1800-2000, ed. W. Janse, Leiden/Boston 2009.
Tazbir J., Państwo bez stosów. Szkice z dziejów tolerancji w Polsce XVI i XVII w., Warszawa 1967.
Tazbir J., Szlachta i teologowie. Studia z dziejów polskiej kontrreformacji, Warszawa 1987.
Tolerance and movements of religious dissent in Eastern Europe, ed. Béla K. Király (Studies on Society in Change, No. 1; East European Monographs, No. XIII), Boulder 1976.
Edict of Torda – 1568
The Edict of Torda, issued in 1568, is a landmark in the history of religious tolerance in Europe. Proclaimed in the town of Torda (now Turda, Romania) during the reign of John II Sigismund Zápolya, the edict allowed local communities to freely elect their preachers and affirmed the coexistence of four major Christian denominations: Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Unitarianism. This remarkable decree, though it did not grant individual religious freedom, was an unprecedented step towards religious pluralism in a time when much of Europe was gripped by sectarian conflict. The Edict was a direct result of the theological debates and intellectual openness fostered by John Sigismund and his court preacher, Ferenc Dávid, a leading figure in the development of Unitarianism.
Hungarian galley slaves – 1673
The story of the Hungarian galley slaves of 1673 is a powerful chapter in the history of religious intolerance in Hungary and the broader context of Central Europe. This tragic episode unfolded during a time when Protestantism was under heavy persecution by the ruling Habsburg dynasty, which sought to reinforce Catholicism as the dominant faith across its territories. The Habsburg response to Protestantism culminated in a series of harsh trials known as the “Hungarian Inquisition,” during which Protestant clergy were accused of inciting rebellion, heresy, and other crimes.
Autonomy of Jews and anti-Judaism in Poland – Krakow
Polish history is inseparable from Jewish history. Despite the fact that this issue was marked by the events of the Second World War, one should take into account other aspects and the situation of the Jewish community in lands under Polish rule in the previous centuries. First and foremost, the autonomy of the Jews should be mentioned. The Jews were granted a special legal status by documents and privileges issued by the authorities. Thus, the situation of the Polish Jews was quite different from the position of their co-religionists living in other European countries.
Warsaw Confederation – 1573 – Warsaw
The rise of Reformation in 16th century and subsequent clash between Catholics and Protestants of various denominations made Europe a witness to religious wars and persecutions. At the same time, however, Poland offered refuge for anyone pursuing their own vision of divine truth, as well as fertile ground for new ideas. Even in the previous century, Polish Kingdom turned out to be very welcoming for the current of Hussitism, originating from the neighbouring Bohemia.
Steps towards religious tolerance – Prague
Freedom of religion and religious tolerance belong to the fundamental values of a democratic society. Such principles are connected with respect for the plurality of opinions and social tolerance, in the Middle Ages and well into the early modern era, however, freedom of conscience was not held in such high regard. Tolerance used to be imposed by the necessity of coexistence of religiously, linguistically and ethnically heterogeneous groups of the populace. Later on, by the 18th century, tolerance increasingly related to the prioritisation of state interests over particular ecclesiastical structures. Nonetheless, several noticeable milestones of tolerance may be identified in Czech history, that is periods when differing religious groups were willing to discuss peacefully and reach mutual compromise.
Religion and violence – Mikulov
From time to time, Czechs are said to be the most atheist nation in Europe. Although a very small percentage of the population identifies with traditional churches compared to neighbouring countries, religious disputes from the past—whether involving the Hussite legacy, the restoration of the Marian Column in Prague’s Old Town Square, or the compensation to churches for property confiscated during the communist era—still resonate strongly in public discourse nowadays. Just as we may identify several key points in history when different religious and ideological groups managed to coexist peacefully, we may also find numerous instances of extreme conflict, escalating into religious wars and violent acts.